Vector quantized image modeling with improved vqgan - Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.

 
Prior works have largely connected image to text through pretraining and/or fine-tuning on curated image-text datasets, which can be a costly and expensive process. In order to resolve this limitation, we propose a simple yet effective approach called Language-Quantized AutoEncoder (LQAE), a modification of VQ-VAE that learns to align text .... Vizio tv sam

But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Sep 19, 2022 · Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN. 2 code implementations • ICLR 2022 Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. Oct 9, 2021 · The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including unconditional, class-conditioned image generation and unsupervised representation learning. When trained on ImageNet at 256x256 resolution, we achieve Inception Score (IS) of 175.1 and Fr'echet Inception Distance (FID) of 4.17, a dramatic improvement over ... But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...We describe multiple improvements to the image quantizer and show that training a stronger image quantizer is a key component for improving both image generation and image understanding. Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. The discrete image tokens are encoded from a learned Vision-Transformer-based VQGAN (ViT-VQGAN). Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN maj 17, 2022 ... Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ...The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including unconditional, class-conditioned image generation and unsupervised representation learning. When trained on ImageNet at 256 × 256 resolution, we achieve Inception Score (IS) of 175.1 and Fréchet Inception Distance (FID) of 4.17, a dramatic improvement ...Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... 2022 Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN مئی 17, 2022 Contextual Rephrasing in Google ...arXiv.org e-Print archiveBut while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...The concept is build upon two stages. The first stage learns in an autoencoder-like fashion by encoding images into a low-dimensional latent space, then applying vector quantization by making use of a codebook. Afterwards, the quantized latent vectors are projected back to the original image space by using a decoder.An Image is Worth 16x16 Words: Transformers for Image Recognition at Scale by Dustin Brunner. Do Deep Generative Models Know What They Don’t Know? by Rongxing Liu. May 31st: Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN by TBD; Detecting Out-of-Distribution Inputs to Deep Generative Models Using Typicality by Dion Hopkinson-SibleyThe discrete image tokens are encoded from a learned Vision-Transformer-based VQGAN (ViT-VQGAN). We first propose multiple improvements over vanilla VQGAN from architecture to codebook learning, yielding better efficiency and reconstruction fidelity. The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.“Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN” proposes a two-stage model that reinvents classic image quantization methods to produce better picture generation and image understanding tasks. The first step is to encode an image into discrete latent codes of lesser dimensions using an image quantization model called VQGAN.Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. The...Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Jiahui Yu, Xin Li, Jing Yu Koh, Han Zhang, Ruoming Pang, James Qin, Alex Ku, Yuanzhong Xu, Jason Baldridge, Yonghui Wu ICLR 2022 / Google AI Blog. SimVLM: Simple Visual Language Model Pretraining with Weak Supervision Zirui Wang, Jiahui Yu, Adams Wei Yu, Zihang Dai, Yulia Tsvetkov, Yuan CaoVector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Venues | OpenReviewand Yonghui Wu. Vector-quantized image modeling with improved vqgan. arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.04627, 2021.3 [10]Chuanxia Zheng, Long Tung Vuong, Jianfei Cai, and Dinh Phung. Movq: Modulating quantized vectors for high-fidelity image generation.arXiv preprint arXiv:2209.09002, 2022.3Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... 2022 Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN مئی 17, 2022 Contextual Rephrasing in Google ...Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Yu, Jiahui ; Li, Xin ; Koh, Jing Yu ; Zhang, Han ; Pang, Ruoming ; Qin, James ; Ku, Alexander ; Xu, Yuanzhong Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Yu, Jiahui ; Li, Xin ; Koh, Jing Yu ; Zhang, Han ; Pang, Ruoming ; Qin, James ; Ku, Alexander ; Xu, YuanzhongBut while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Yu, Jiahui ; Li, Xin ; Koh, Jing Yu ; Zhang, Han ; Pang, Ruoming ; Qin, James ; Ku, Alexander ; Xu, Yuanzhong But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-quantized image modeling with improved vqgan J Yu, X Li, JY Koh, H Zhang, R Pang, J Qin, A Ku, Y Xu, J Baldridge, Y Wu The Tenth International Conference on Learning Representations , 2021Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. The discrete image tokens are encoded from a learned Vision-Transformer-based VQGAN (ViT-VQGAN).Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Yu, Jiahui ; Li, Xin ; Koh, Jing Yu ; Zhang, Han ; Pang, Ruoming ; Qin, James ; Ku, Alexander ; Xu, Yuanzhong Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Jiahui Yu, Xin Li, Jing Yu Koh, Han Zhang, Ruoming Pang, James Qin, Alex Ku, Yuanzhong Xu, Jason Baldridge, Yonghui Wu ICLR 2022 / Google AI Blog. SimVLM: Simple Visual Language Model Pretraining with Weak Supervision Zirui Wang, Jiahui Yu, Adams Wei Yu, Zihang Dai, Yulia Tsvetkov, Yuan CaoImage encoders compress an image into smaller dimensions, sometimes even quantized into a discrete space (such as the VQGAN from taming-transformers used in Craiyon). In this article, we try to reproduce the results from ViT-VQGAN (" Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN ") and experiment with further adaptations.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN Yu, Jiahui ; Li, Xin ; Koh, Jing Yu ; Zhang, Han ; Pang, Ruoming ; Qin, James ; Ku, Alexander ; Xu, Yuanzhong We first propose multiple improvements over vanilla VQGAN from architecture to codebook learning, yielding better efficiency and reconstruction fidelity. The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including unconditional, class-conditioned image generation and unsupervised representation learning.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN may 17, 2022 ... Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ...Vector-quantized image modeling with improved VQGAN, Oct 2021. This paper uses a 2-stage approach. This first stage uses a Vision transformer-based VQGAN for discrete codebook learning. The second state is an autoregressive transformer whose input is represented by stage 1 encoding.Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN maj 17, 2022 ... Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ...Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. The discrete image tokens are encoded from a learned Vision-Transformer-based VQGAN (ViT-VQGAN). Autoregressive Image Generation using Residual Quantization ...arXiv.org e-Print archiveBut while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Rethinking the Objectives of Vector-Quantized Tokenizers for Image Synthesis. Vector -Quantized (VQ-based) generative models usually consist of two basic components, i.e., VQ tokenizers and generative transformers. Prior research focuses on improving the reconstruction fidelity of VQ tokenizers but rarely examines how the improvement in ...一、改进点: 1.stage1(image quantization ViT-VQGAN): 基于ViT的VQGAN encoder。 基于VQGAN做了从架构到码本学习方式的多种改进——>提升了efficiency和reconstruction fidelity. 包括logits-laplace loss,L2 loss,adversarial loss 和 perceptual loss. 2.stage2(vector-quantized image modeling VIM): 学习了一个自回归的transformer,包括无条件生成/类条件生成/无监督表示学习。Overview of the proposed ViT-VQGAN (left) and VIM (right), which, when working together, is capable of both image generation and image understanding…But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Sep 19, 2022 · Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN. 2 code implementations • ICLR 2022 Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...openreview.net あくまで個人的なメモVQGANの改善とベクトル量子化を使った画像生成モデル・画像分類モデルの改善。VQVAEはCNNベースのAE、VQGANはそこにadversarial lossを導入した。 これらはCNNのauto encoder(AE)の学習(ステージ1)とencodeしたlatent variablesの密度をCNN(or Transformer)で学習する(ステージ2)という2つ ...We first propose multiple improvements over vanilla VQGAN from architecture to codebook learning, yielding better efficiency and reconstruction fidelity. The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including unconditional, class-conditioned image generation and unsupervised representation learning.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN maj 17, 2022 ... Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end.But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Oct 9, 2021 · The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including unconditional, class-conditioned image generation and unsupervised representation learning. When trained on ImageNet at 256x256 resolution, we achieve Inception Score (IS) of 175.1 and Fr'echet Inception Distance (FID) of 4.17, a dramatic improvement over ... Described as “a bunch of Python that can take words and make pictures based on trained data sets," VQGANs (Vector Quantized Generative Adversarial Networks) pit neural networks against one another to synthesize “plausible” images. Much coverage has been on the unsettling applications of GANs, but they also have benign uses. Hands-on access through a simplified front-end helps us develop ...Sep 19, 2022 · Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN. 2 code implementations • ICLR 2022 Motivated by this success, we explore a Vector-quantized Image Modeling (VIM) approach that involves pretraining a Transformer to predict rasterized image tokens autoregressively. Venues | OpenReviewopenreview.net あくまで個人的なメモVQGANの改善とベクトル量子化を使った画像生成モデル・画像分類モデルの改善。VQVAEはCNNベースのAE、VQGANはそこにadversarial lossを導入した。 これらはCNNのauto encoder(AE)の学習(ステージ1)とencodeしたlatent variablesの密度をCNN(or Transformer)で学習する(ステージ2)という2つ ...In “ Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN ”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization techniques to yield improved performance on image generation and image understanding tasks. In the first stage, an image quantization model, called VQGAN, encodes an image into lower-dimensional discrete ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Image-Text Pre-training with Contrastive Captioners ... 2022 Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN May 17, 2022 Contextual Rephrasing in Google ...openreview.net あくまで個人的なメモVQGANの改善とベクトル量子化を使った画像生成モデル・画像分類モデルの改善。VQVAEはCNNベースのAE、VQGANはそこにadversarial lossを導入した。 これらはCNNのauto encoder(AE)の学習(ステージ1)とencodeしたlatent variablesの密度をCNN(or Transformer)で学習する(ステージ2)という2つ ...Vector-quantized image modeling with improved VQGAN, Oct 2021. This paper uses a 2-stage approach. This first stage uses a Vision transformer-based VQGAN for discrete codebook learning. The second state is an autoregressive transformer whose input is represented by stage 1 encoding.此篇 ViT-VQGAN 為 VQ-GAN 的改良版本,沒看過的人可以看 The AI Epiphany 介紹的 VQ-GAN 和 VQ-VAE,這種類型的方法主要是要得到一個好的 quantizer,而 VQ-VAE 是透過 CNN-based 的 auto-encoder 把 latent space 變成類似像 dictionary 的 codebook (discrete…But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...Autoregressive Image Generation using Residual Quantization ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...

In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization techniques to yield improved performance on image generation and image understanding tasks.. Sks bbyn

vector quantized image modeling with improved vqgan

Abstract and Figures. Although two-stage Vector Quantized (VQ) generative models allow for synthesizing high-fidelity and high-resolution images, their quantization operator encodes similar ...Prior works have largely connected image to text through pretraining and/or fine-tuning on curated image-text datasets, which can be a costly and expensive process. In order to resolve this limitation, we propose a simple yet effective approach called Language-Quantized AutoEncoder (LQAE), a modification of VQ-VAE that learns to align text ...Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN. Pretraining language models with next-token prediction on massive text corpora has delivered phenomenal zero-shot, few-shot, transfer learning and multi-tasking capabilities on both generative and discriminative language tasks.We first propose multiple improvements over vanilla VQGAN from architecture to codebook learning, yielding better efficiency and reconstruction fidelity. The improved ViT-VQGAN further improves vector-quantized image modeling tasks, including unconditional, class-conditioned image generation and unsupervised representation learning.此篇 ViT-VQGAN 為 VQ-GAN 的改良版本,沒看過的人可以看 The AI Epiphany 介紹的 VQ-GAN 和 VQ-VAE,這種類型的方法主要是要得到一個好的 quantizer,而 VQ-VAE 是透過 CNN-based 的 auto-encoder 把 latent space 變成類似像 dictionary 的 codebook (discrete…An Image is Worth 16x16 Words: Transformers for Image Recognition at Scale by Dustin Brunner. Do Deep Generative Models Know What They Don’t Know? by Rongxing Liu. May 31st: Vector-quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN by TBD; Detecting Out-of-Distribution Inputs to Deep Generative Models Using Typicality by Dion Hopkinson-SibleyThe Vector-Quantized (VQ) codebook is first introduced in VQVAE , which aims to learn discrete priors to encode images. The following work VQGAN proposes a perceptual codebook by further using perceptual loss and adversarial training objectives . We briefly describe the VQGAN model with its codebook in this section, and more details can be ...But while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...We describe multiple improvements to the image quantizer and show that training a stronger image quantizer is a key component for improving both image generation and image understanding. Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational ...Abstract and Figures. Although two-stage Vector Quantized (VQ) generative models allow for synthesizing high-fidelity and high-resolution images, their quantization operator encodes similar ...Described as “a bunch of Python that can take words and make pictures based on trained data sets," VQGANs (Vector Quantized Generative Adversarial Networks) pit neural networks against one another to synthesize “plausible” images. Much coverage has been on the unsettling applications of GANs, but they also have benign uses. Hands-on access through a simplified front-end helps us develop ...arXiv.org e-Print archiveBut while such models have achieved strong performance for image generation, few studies have evaluated the learned representation for downstream discriminative tasks (such as image classification). In “Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with Improved VQGAN”, we propose a two-stage model that reconceives traditional image quantization ...The Vector-Quantized (VQ) codebook is first introduced in VQVAE , which aims to learn discrete priors to encode images. The following work VQGAN proposes a perceptual codebook by further using perceptual loss and adversarial training objectives . We briefly describe the VQGAN model with its codebook in this section, and more details can be ...Vector-Quantized Image Modeling with ViT-VQGAN. One recent, commonly used model that quantizes images into integer tokens is the Vector-quantized Variational AutoEncoder (VQVAE), a CNN-based auto-encoder whose latent space is a matrix of discrete learnable variables, trained end-to-end..

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